Reflective Anti Oppressive Practice Social Work Essay Essays

Reflective Anti Oppressive Practice Social Work Essay Essays Reflective Anti Oppressive Practice Social Work Essay Essay Reflective Anti Oppressive Practice Social Work Essay Essay Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing. Tuckman s ( 1965 ) attack as a additive theoretical account was using to the group. The criterions and norms of behavior are set uping. Forming identified to work with group service users together. However non everyone does non desire to prosecute From ramping to norming phases, working with client P is recoded by making cardinal Sessionss hebdomadal Client P have to do the pick to conform with, she is awareness breach her contract. Asking unfastened and closed inquiries are the key to construct a good resonance with the service user. The PCS modal identifies the degrees of subjugation ; Personal Cultural Structural The PCS Model Personal Beliefs, attitudes and behavior How people regard or treat others Cultural Accepted values and codifications of behavior Consensus Structure Structural and establishments within society which act to perpetuate societal divisions, bias and favoritism Personal ( P ) degree Individual actions that I come into contact with, for illustration service user. Cultural ( C ) Degree This analysis is related to the shared values or commonalties . For illustration, shared beliefs about what is right and incorrect, good or bad, can organize a consensus. Structural ( S ) Degree This analysis demonstrates how subjugation is sewn into the cloth of society through establishments that support both cultural norms and personal beliefs. Some establishments such as subdivisions of the media, faith and the authorities can cement the beliefs. Case survey: homeless pregnant immature individual Phosphorus: Young individual 18 old ages old sharing at her friend s place. She is 3 hebdomad pregnant ; her fellow has left her and both reasoning all the clip. There is no support from place as her female parent is on benefits and populating off her. There is statement with her new fellow for support. Degree centigrades: being homeless within the community she is sharing her ideas and feelings with different groups. Second: Network of divisions, societal services, wellness, local authorization Practitioners will back up with acquisition tools that transform to dispute subjugation. Thompson, ( 2006 ) have identified the barriers in associating to ethical pattern to place organize group- based attacks to anti-discriminatory pattern to work together on issues of inequality, favoritism and subjugation ( Thompson, 2006 ) . Challenging pattern with immature people engages them into ways at utilizing wider policy aims ia individual centred base. Service users will openly discourse and debate issues within a safe environment amongst their equals and concentrate on constructing one s assurance and reassurance within a group, every bit good as keeping the scholar s concentration. These rules are about being worthy of attending regardless what they can make and who they are as follows Respects and advance immature people s rights to do their determination or picks, unless the public assistance of them as earnestly threatened. Promote the public assistance and safety while allowing them to larn through activities. Contributes towards the publicity of societal justnesss for immature people and encourages them to esteem differences, diverseness and disputing favoritism. Act with a profession unity ( Banks, 2001 ) When measuring immature people it is necessary to take into consideration that there are no right or incorrect replies. By utilizing unfastened inquiries, this allow service user to prosecute with the practician to spread out on their sentiments and experiences.. Decision Using the PCS theoretical account, I recognised the marks within groups to work together and back up each other on their strengths and failing. Thompson, ( 1994 ) identified the barriers in associating to ethical pattern to place organize group- based attacks to anti-discriminatory pattern is to work together on issues of inequality, favoritism and subjugation. Tuckman s theory in the workplace has helped to place leading within a group phase development. I identify the phases through tuckmans theory has helped to be non judegment Al with clients as their strengths and failing can be assesss to construct up their regard and assurance for them to rapport a good working relationship.

French Baby Talk - Les Mots Des Bébés

French Baby Talk - Les Mots Des Bà ©bà ©s Just like any other kids around the world, French children use a vocabulary that is quite different from what an adult says. Most are two syllable words, often the same syllable repeated twice. Or with a slight variation, just as in Maman and Papa. List of French Baby Talk Words AreuhYes, the first sound a French kid does is a real challenge for English speakers!  It doesnt mean anything. Its like gaga goo-goo, but thats what French people say to a baby - I guess they too need as much training as possible on this  French R sound!​ Maman  Young kids may say mama but the French word is maman. There is no shorter version such as Mom. PapaThats Daddy. Again, no Dad, Pops etc... in French Tata / tatieFor Auntie. Its short for une tante. TontonShort for oncle. Mà ©mà ©Short for Mamie, but many kids call their grandma mà ©mà ©. Other words include grand-mà ¨re, bonne-maman... Note that une mà ©mà © can have different meanings in French, such as an old person, or a young girl that goes into mischief...  Ma fille est une vraie mà ©mà © !My daughter is really a trouble-maker (but in a cute way). Pà ©pà ©Short for Papi (or Papy) - formal French would be le grand-pà ¨re or Grand-Papa, Bon Papa... Le loloLe lait. Le dodoThe act of sleeping, or going to bed. We say: Au dodo ! Get to bed! Le nounoursThis one comes from un ours and in both words, you should pronounce the final S. Its, of course, a teddy bear. Le doudouIts not what you think... Un doudou is actually a stuffed animal or teddy, or blankie a kid sleeps with. Not to be mistaken with...   Le caca / le popoWhich is poop. Wed say faire caca. Le pipiMore of almost the same... thats pee :-) Again, we say faire pipi - to go wee-wee. Le proutThis one is a fart. The formal French word would be une flatulence (very formal) or un pet (common French) Le ziziWeenie, penis. La zà ©zette is for girls. Lets change subject, shall we? Un dadaA horse. dada means on your horse - it may come from an old song, Im not sure. Un toutouA dog. I dont think there is a specific French baby word for cat. I guess un chat is simple enough. After Papa et Maman (and of course non) chat was the first word of my daughter. The next one was papillon (butterfly). Un boboAlmost like in English, a boo-boo.   Voil, now youre ready to handle a French kid!

Research Paper on the History of the United States Navy Essay

Research Paper on the History of the United States Navy - Essay Example Thus, it can be said that the US navy does not have any specific origin, but it rather came in to being because of the requirements and political progressions of that time. In the eighteenth century, US navy used the fleet of the ship-of-line in their wars. These ships were beautifully designed keeping in mind all the important aspects of the needs and requirements of the war time. Three vast masts were incorporated in these ships, which towered 200 feet above the surface level of the sea. These ships basically worked on the propulsion of the winds, and they therefore were totally not dependent upon the energy. The ships were easy and comfortable enough to be lived in as long as possible. In the 19th century, when Japan started creating its own ships and battle cruises, the US naval forces started working on the building of new fleet of ships. Every war made the US navy stronger comparatively. Exercise and hardships made the US stand against all the naval forces of the world. In the present time, the US navy is considered to be the best among all the naval forces of the world (Howarth 229). The history of the US navy basically started from 1775 when the war between Lexington and Concord took place. A fleet under the leadership of Captain Abraham Whipple overtook and captured the British tender located in Narragansett Bay. Meanwhile, Congress was recommended to build a Continental Navy to fight against these actions. Washington’s navy, was asked by George Washington to attack the British ships by using Hannah in the action. In response to this action, Continental navy came into existence in the same year. Silas Deane, Christopher Gadsden and John Langdon were the supervisors of this work (Howarth 57). The first action of the Continental navy took place in 1776. The Continental Navy could not survive because its discovery was considered as the worst

Investment and Portfolio Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Investment and Portfolio Analysis - Essay Example 102-103). Such the yields are available for the public. For instance, one can easily find them on the Internet. The characteristics of a bond determine timing and values of associated cash flows. Therefore, an investor can easily discount all cash flows associated with a bond to figure out fairly good estimate of its value. As for the common stocks, the company that issues the stock can invest some portion of its earnings in projects in hope to increase the value of the firm. The rest of the earnings is distributed among the shareholders in the form of dividends. Unfortunately, â€Å"the details on forthcoming projects are not generally public information† (Ross, Westerfield and Jaffe 1999, p. 109). Therefore, the patterns of cash flows shareholders receive are not known in advance and can be much more complicated than those bondholders receive. However, a number of techniques for stock valuation were developed. All of them need as input â€Å"investor’s required retur n on the stock† and â€Å"growth rate† of one or several indicators of companys performance such as "dividends, earnings, cash flow or sales" (Reilly and Brown, 2003, p. 377). To estimate the first input, investors can use the return of a common stock of the respective class and rating as a useful benchmark (Haugen, 1979, p. 68). Due to above mentioned complexity, accompanied by the fact that the guarantees to the investors in common stocks differ from the ones to the investors in bonds, sometimes these inputs can be estimated only roughly. Moreover, their uncertainties can turn out to be â€Å"too large to be practical† (Ross, Westerfield and Jaffe 1999, p. 111). Thus, generally investors produce better estimates of bond values than those of common stock ones. To identify appropriate investments, portfolio managers figure out a set of â€Å"marketwide and industrywide factors† that makes unsystematic risks of

Calvetta Essay Example for Free

Calvetta Essay 4. How, if at all, should Calveta’s organization structure and practices be changed to accommodate growth and effective communication, while maintaining the company’s culture? This is a very sticky issue. Growth, along with other factors, seems to have diminishing effects on company culture, popularly referred to as â€Å"Antonio’s way†. Two forms of growth present themselves to the company. They can either expand into the hospital segment (which falls in line with core competencies); or they could buy up GSD consequently growing their SLF customer base. Given the issues listed, I don’t believe purchasing GSD would be profitable, as debt financing would have to be undertaken thus, going against Antonio’s way. However, Frank believes they must grow in order to stay competitive within the industry so the former opportunity should be undertaken. The turnover, and promotion rate for Calveta is too rapid. It’s one of the major issues dissatisfied customers had with the SLF. Frank should consider slowing this down, and perhaps placing new staff members in proper training programs administered by current staff to ensure smooth staff changes. Whilst flexibility and ease of advancement may make the employees happier, the customers will suffer from the constant interrupted changes. Calveta should maintain a degree of normalcy in the workplace, and make it harder to advance (could have positive affects on employees motivation). Another structural issue is the current staff organization. If Frank is worried about the loss of emphasis on his father’s ideals he must communicate this effectively with the staff. Discussion groups, incentive packages, and achievable goals should be established for all staff members, especially new ones, so that company culture is maintained and reinforced. If Calveta are to grow, they will need a larger amount of regional employees. This will most likely lead to the hiring of persons outside of the company. Calveta need not hire them right out of college though. They may obtain them from similar companies with similar values and ideals. As GSD is about to be taken over, perhaps the better staff members may wish to come to Calveta  instead of staying on with a new owner. To ensure continuation of company culture pointed questions in the interview and recruitment process pertaining to it should be asked. Similarly, constant feedback for current employees would reinforce challenge 4, of Antonio’s way.

The Opening Chapters in Great Expectations and Jane Eyre Essays

How effective are the opening chapters in Great Expectations and Jane Eyre? In my essay i will be explaining and comparing the opening paragraphs of "Great Expectations" ang "Jane Eyre". The author of "Great Expectations" is Charles Dickens (1812-70). Dickens was a middle class man who was well known and wealthy. He had his own magazine, called "All the year round", in which he published "Great Expectations" over a period of 59 weeks; one chapter a week was published his magazine. He wrote it in 1860 and it was published between December 1860 and August 1861. "Jane Eyre" was published in 1847 and written by Charlotte Bronte but under the name of Currer Bell because it was hard for a women in the Victorian times to publish a book. She was born in Yorkshire but lived a short life of only 39 years (1816-55). It was not just her in her family that dies at a young age, she had two sisters who did not make it to adulthood. She also had a brother and two surviving sisters. Her father was a Vicar. She was not the only literate person in the family; her sisters also had books published. "Great Expectations" starts off with Pip all alone in a deserted graveyard looking at his immediate relatives gravestones. Then a man threatens him "...I'll cut your throat!" The man is an escaped prisoner and instructs Pip to help him by getting his brother-in-laws tools to get his shackles off. Pip agrees to help him so that the prisoner does not kill him. He says if Pip tells anyone that he has seen the man he is going to be killed by a "young man" Jane is an orphan living with the Reed family. She is being bullied by John Reed, and is scared of him. Mrs Reed ignores the bullying even though it happens in front of her ... ...n-laws tools to help the prisoner and how will Pip cope with the pressure of keeping a big secret. I think the cliff hanger in "Jane Eyre" is more sucessful because in "Great Expectations" we can almost guess what is going to happen next, we can predict that Pip is going to help the prisoner and the prisoner has made up the young man to scare Pip so he helps him. In "Jane Eyre" it is more of a cliff hanger because more questions have to be answered later on in the book. We need to know; what the red room is; how long will Jane be in there for; and is the bullying from John Reed going to get worse. I think that "Great Expectations" is more sucessful because it has more of an effective plot which would make us want to read on. I do not feel that "Jane Eyre" has a strong enough plot to keep the readers attenion and it would not make us want to read on.

A Chronicle of the Plague

The Black Death: A Chronicle of the Plague by Johannes Nohl (1882–1963) is an illustrative book that traces down the flux of plague and its effects in Europe over the centuries. It examines this malady from historical and sociological perspective. The major contribution of Johannes Nohl is that he does not rely on secondary sources but has researched the contemporary chronicles to locate the pathos and miseries that this epidemic afflicted on the populations of Europe over the centuries.Scope of work is both intensive and extensive as he has provided an in-depth study that encompasses four centuries (1337-1720) and a vast geographical area from Western Europe to Russia and from Nordic ice-burgs to the Mediterranean Sea. In addition to being a historian, Johannes Nohl was also a psychoanalyst. So The Black Death: A Chronicle of the Plague is not a mere chronicle of the plague & its effects but also it further analyzes the socio-cultural, psychological and economic effects of th is epidemics on the whole European civilization that persist in certain societies hitherto.It beautifully blends the comprehensive accounts of the pandemic that caused almost 40 million deaths a single century during the fourteenth century alone with durable socio-cultural impact. The book also locates that how people countered these epidemics and what practical measures were adopted to tackle the problem at large scale. Nohl illustrate that Black Death changed the patterns of life and affected all facets of culture as people migrated from one geographical location to the other to escape themselves from this epidemic.First two chapters, The Aspect of the Plague and The Precursors of the Plague describe the nature of plague as it was understood by the contemporary societies. Nohl has explored through contemporary chronicles that Plague was considered a celestial phenomenon as plague use to visit the European societies sporadically in the form of a natural disaster. Furthermore, Nohl explores that most usual route of these epidemics were from India to Central Asia and then to Europe through trade groups and in Europe it used to spread along with waterways in the shape of a natural catastrophe.In the next two chapters The Medical Profession and Plague Remedies, Nohl discovers the available medical remedies in the medieval societies and how medical professionals reacted to it. Contemporary chironicles suggest that mostly people used to rely on religious conviction and pilgrimages rather than visiting a doctor. Most medical treatment was based on plant extracts. Availability and affordability of medicines were another problem due to mass scale spread and impact of the disease. Nohl looks into the various other socio-political aspects of the epidemic.For example, aadministrative precautions mostly included individual and group exclusion from the community of the hale and hearty. A systematic effort in this regards was not possible as plague used to erupt abruptly, s o it was administered intermittently. Nohl has not only provided the official and royal manuscripts and chronicles but to present the conditions and miseries of the general public, he has included chronicles of travelers, contemporary historians. These clearly manifest that plague had different effects of different social classes and each class was treated in a different way both socially and administratively.In addition to socio-cultural and political effects, epidemic of plague had cast their disturbing impact on the worldview Christian community. Church responded in its own way to the pandemic. The Church labeled it as a reaction of sins and their only remedy was ritualistic deliverance that would purge the sins. So ritualistic practices were used to organize at the individual and collective level. Some other Christian followers were of the view that world is overtaken by the evil as Divinity itself was a friend of mankind and how it could afflict it with such pathos and miseries .Another section of orthodox sect, The Luciferians were of the view that God had toppled down Lucifer, their lord, and had taken over heaven. So this is a natural response of this tragedy. (Nohl 1924, 161-163). Some other compared the disease as an Arial and celestial phenomenon that was beyond the strength and capacity of mankind. This view was further reinforced by the fact that prior to the Black Death, in 1117, the eruption of plague was coincided with a cosmic phenomenon that medieval mind was unable to comprehend. Nohl states in this regard thatIn 1117, in January, a comet passed like a fiery army from North toward the orient, the moon was o’ercast blood-red in an eclipse, a year later a light appeared more brilliant than the sun,. This was followed by great cold, famine and plague, of which one-third of the humanity have said to have perished. Nohl further describes same coincidences in 1568, 1582 and 1606 when Netherlands, Prague and Vienna were badly affected with pl ague. This shaped the general mentality that plague is an extra human phenomenon and mankind had no control over it. The social fabric of the whole European society was transformed by these notions and beliefs.Nohl depicts that beside human causalities, first social causality was breakdown of social order. There was â€Å"an incapacity to believe that so uncanny a disease as the plague could be attributable to natural causes† which led â€Å"the fateful misconception of [its] artificial production† (Nohl 171). This belief molded their worldview and they become more recluse and a believers in the fictitious remedial rituals. Nohl also illustrates an interesting but tragic fact that plague was intentionally passed on to others. He located the motive for this deliberate infection as infectants did not want to undergo the agonies alone.Furthermore, it was common belief that one could liberate oneself of his contagion by transmitting it to others (Nohl 171). Nohl also provi des evidences when someone infected his/her rival or enemy due to sheer malice and enmity. Sometime, Lutherans were blamed for this curse but more often Jews were labeled as propellants of this deadly disease. So they were persecuted on mass level to purge the society from this malady but it is a fact that Jews used running streams for their sanitary purposes unlike Christian who used contaminated public wells that were often a prime cause for dispersal of various diseases.Toward end, the book has an interesting chapter, The Erotic Element in the Plague that relation sexuality with deadly disease. This book covers all aspects of Black Death pertaining to the contemporary medieval societies and all these are supported with the contemporary chronicles. It not only provides a synopsis of whole epidemic history but provides an in-depth analysis of the entire phenomenon. References Nohl, Johannes. 1924. The Black Death: A Chronicle of the Plague. Translated by C. H. Clarke. New York: Har per and Brothers Publishers.

Indian Civilization

INDIAN CIVILIZATION Also called Indus Valley Civilization; the earliest in South Asia Contemporary with Bronze Age civilizations in pre-dynastic Egypt, Mesopotamia Compared to the other Bronze Age civilizations, Indus Valley Civilization was unspectacular Early civilizations of the Indian sub-continent were centred on two major river valleys: The Indus River and its tributaries, especially the Saraswati River Valley (2600-1500BCE) – associated with Dravidians. Called Harappan Culture The Ganges River Valley (1500-500BCE) – associated with the Aryans. Called the Vedic Age. Along the Indus & Saraswati, there were two major centres of this civilization: Mohenjodaro and Harappa hence Harappan Culture Other cities of this civilization include Kalibagan, Chanhudaro & Doraji in Gujerat Origins and Development This civilization appears as fully developed & distinctive culture; little is known about the cultures that came before it or the factors that led to its development Recent research indicates that antecedents of this civilization can be found at Mehrgarh on the western edge of the Indus plains Evidence that domestication of plants & animals, pottery production and village life began here Around 3200 – 2600 BCE, several pre-urban cultures existed in Indus Plains and the western hill valleys that show aspects of the Harappan culture HARAPPAN CULTURE: CHARACTERISTICS Built on irrigation-based agriculture. Irrigation based on dikes and drains. Barley and wheat the most important crops; grains stored in granaries in Harappa and Mohenjodaro (as a form of tax? ) Domesticated animals cattle, water buffalo, goats, pigs, donkeys Trade was very important; extensive trade connections with areas around the Arabian Sea & up the Persian Gulf to Mesoptamia Fortified cities; well-planned with straight streets intersecting at right angles; a system of underground drains and sewers Buildings made of baked bricks. At Mohenjodaro, multi-roomed houses have been recorded Thickness of walls and remains of staircases point to the existence of upper floors Skilled artisans including bead makers, metal workers, cotton weavers and potters Potters made painted pots decorated with nimal figures, water jars, cooking & drinking vessels & storage vessels Metal workers produced copper and bronze vessels, silver and gold ornaments Other artisans produced the square and rectangular seals from steatite & other soft rocks Seals had an animal carved in negative relief and a line of script that could be read when the seal was stamped on wet tablet Seals were used to authenticate messages. The script on the seals revealed the name, lineage, social identity or the public office held by seal-owner Seals could also have been worn as talismans or amulets They are the only examples of writing from this period 400 pictographs/characters have been identified so far, but the script is not fully deciphered RELIGION Little is known about the early religions of the Indus River Valley in these early times However, many elements of India’s religious heritage today are evident from some seals from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. A seal from Mohenjodaro has a human-like figure with three heads wearing a headdress and sitting in the Yoga position. He is surrounded by animals: elephants, rhinos, water buffalo, deer etc. Thought to be a Prototype of the popular Hindu god, Shiva (the Lord of Beasts) Seal impressions and clay figurines from Harappa depict a female deity with conspicous sexual organs = thought to represent the goddess of fertility FALL & DECLINE Harappan Culture declined and fell around 1500 BCE; Harappa, Mohenjodaro and other cities were abandoned and their populations dispersed into smaller settlements There was a reversal of achievements: writing was forgotten and much of northern India returned to village life REASONS FOR DECLINE/FALL 1. Possible flooding along the Indus, affecting the densely populated areas and cities 2. Shifts in patterns of long distance trade with Mesopotamia and other regions 3. Changes in subsistence farming; rice cultivation was introduced along the Ganges Basin and had taken root by 1500BCE; millet was introduced in Gujerat. So new environments were opened for farming where conditions were unsuitable for wheat and barley 4. Major geological disturbances near the source of Saraswati river, causing it to dry up, catastrophically disrupting agriculture downstream. 5. Invasion by the Aryans (Arya = noble) who came from the northern steppes of Europe REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE ARYANS A highly developed spoken language that tended to displace other tongues that it encountered Better military organization: horse-drawn war chariots and weapons made from iron which was superior to bronze GANGES RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS Aryans became sedentary landowners along the Ganges; others became traders on the river Crafts became more specialized & increased in complexity; produced iron ploughs, luxury items for trade Urban centres re-emerged with substantial populations of artisans, traders, resident landowners, priests, warriors Major metropolises along the Ganges include Patna, Benares (which is still a holy city for Hindus even today) SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Early Indian societies were matriarchal (i. e. headed by women) and matrilineal (inheritance was through the female side of the family). This changed with the coming of the Aryans who were patriarchal Before the Aryans, husbands lived with the wife’s family; the wife’s family paid dowry. After Aryans, wife’s were required to move to the husband’s family, bring substantial dowries and accept husband’s authority The caste system was introduced at this time. Basis for caste division was social and economic rather than racial Originally there were four castes: 1. Sudras = cultivators of land, manual labourers, domestic servants 2. Vaisyas = landowners, artisans, herdsmen, merchants . Kshatriyas = the warrior nobility 4. Brahmans = priests, scholars The caste system became a dominant factor in shaping Indian society Economic specialization & division of labour played a role in the evolution of the caste e. g. Brahmans engage freely in other occupation, avoiding those considered to be polluting The hierarchy embodied in the caste system also applies to the cosmic order; the ranking order o f the caste (from pure to impure) corresponded to the ascending order of the divinities as well POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Not much is known about the political organization in India before the coming of the Aryans However, we know that Harappans had adopted the city as a means of organizing & controlling their civilization Up to five major Harappan cities are known: Harappa after which the civilization is named; Mohenjodaro, Kalibagan, Chanhudaro & Doraji Aryans were loosely organized into families, clans and tribes. Tribes were headed by chiefs/kings called Rajas, most of whom were elected or chosen by rotation from the leading families Rajas shared political power with councils of elders & assemblies of adult males There were two forms of states in India: Republics and Kingdoms In the Republics, rajas continued to rule in conjunction with powerful councils and the assemblies while in the Kingdoms, the power of the rajas grew at the expense of the councils & the assemblies. Most often, power became hereditary Monarchies developed administrative systems headed by chief priests and military leaders Close alliance between kings & priests; Brahmans were involved in the consecration of new kings; the kings supported the emerging Hindu priesthoods RELIGION Again, little is known about early religion in Harappan India. However, we know that religion in early India was a form of polytheism People of Harappan culture worshipped a goddess whose clay figurines have been recovered in Harappa & Mohenjodaro Aryans introduced new gods including: Indra = the god of war Agni = The spirit of the sacrificial fire Varuna = the lord of the big sky Aryans sacrificed to these divinities by slaughtering dozens, even hundreds of animals & sometimes humans too Sacrifices were accompanied by hymns, prayers & rituals. The hymns were passed on through generations to become core of the Hindu scriptures, the vedas HINDUISM Hinduism emerged from the merging of the gods of the Aryans and those of the conquered Dravidians Early Hindus saw some of their gods in the shape of animals (anthropomorphic divinities) such as snakes, the sacred cow etc However, Hinduism did evolve to engage in philosophical search for the deepest spiritual principle of the universe The most important gods of the Hindu faith are: Brahma = the creator god; also called the Absolute Being or the World/Universal Soul Vishnu = the preserver of the universe Shiva = the dancing divinity with four arms and the destroyer of all things; also the Lord of Beasts The concept of Brahma later subsumed all the three gods (Brahma, Vishnu & Shiva). Brahma personified the concept of a deity that could be worshipped; Brahman (as the title for the priestly class) is a derivative of the same word Brahman can also be described as the universal principle that underlies all that exists, the spiritual essence permeating the entire cosmos & the one hidden in all things; hence reincarnation THE VEDAS Today, Hinduism is based on the vedas, the sacred books of the Hindu religion. Vedas are believed to have been divinely inspired. There are four vedas: 1. Yajurveda: a manual of sacrifice for the officiating priest 2. Atharvaveda: a catalogue of charms & spells supposed to be effective in curing illnesses, arousing passion in the object of one’s desire or in destroying one’s enemies 3. Rig Veda (means â€Å"verses of wisdom† or â€Å"knowledge†): a compilation of more than 1000 poems composed between 1500-900 BCE, addressed to various Aryan gods. For example one of the poems is dedicated to Indra who is described as the god of thunder who pierced the bellies of the mountains to release waters (possibly referring to annual floods caused by the melting of snow in the Himalayas). Another poem appeals for protection of goddess Night whose radiance was believed to drive away darkness Another poem is by a gambler lamenting an unlucky throw of the dice which has caused his wife to repel him and his mother-in-law to hate him. 4. Upanishads (meaning â€Å"sitting down near†): These are philosophical treatises in prose and verse. They are cast in the form of dialogues between teacher and student They examine the nature of reality and the problem of man’s place in the universe. They reveal a genius for conceptual reasoning still admired today. †¢Upanishads teach that evil is the fruit of ignorance; that the pursuit of wisdom is pursuit of the highest possible good and that attainment of wisdom bestows both power and virtue †¢Main Teachings: The Absolute Being/World Soul is the only supreme reality Material world is an illusion (or maya); it is not permanent †¢That individual souls go through a cycle of rebirth; the soul seeks to reach nivarna (spiritual liberation) †¢That the soul can escape the cycle of rebirth by union with the Absolute Being. The individual soul (atman) is actually a fragment of Brahman, the Universal Soul. OTHER ASPECTS OF HINDUISM The concept of brotherhood of all living things embodied in the concepts of reincarnation and transmigration of souls, karma and ahimsa The Hindu faith holds that each human soul is reborn/reincarnated in the body of some other creature – human, animal, plant or even supernatural being over & over again The precise form one takes on reincarnation depends on karma or the actions one takes in the present life Good and pious life – you may be reborn as a Brahman or other high caste; a life of self-indulgence & sin – you may live your next life as a worm, dog or something else Members of lowly castes were encouraged to diligently do their duties to be born to higher status Dharma (faithful performance of one’s assigned role) and Karma (merits and demerits earned as a result of action) cemented loyalty to the prescriptions of caste. Thus doctrine of transmigration of souls reinforced the caste system Ahimsa refers to the doctrine of nonviolence; first emerged among the Jains before adoption by others in Indian society Meditation – Hindus belief that one might escape endless rounds of lives filled in with human suffering through meditation (i. e. the mystical concentration of all psychic forces) The goal of Yogi meditation is the submergence of one’s ego in the supreme unity of Brahman. This is achieved through spiritual enlightenment: that all differences are illusions (or maya) & that all that really exists is the totality of Brahman, the Absolute Being BUDDHISM Has origins in religious reforms in Indian society in the 6th century BCE. These reforms produced the spiritual teachers or gurus The gurus were later described as the naked philosophers (or the gymnosophists) because they walked naked in the rain and the sun to discipline the flesh Also fasted for long periods of time & engaged in exhausting exersices that developed into the sacred discipline of yoga Two leading gurus were Mahavira (540-476 BCE) & Prince Siddartha or Gautama (563-483 BCE) Mahavira founded Jainism & Gautama founded Buddhism Gautama was given the title of Buddha (the Enlightened One) by his followers; was born in the Himalayas, present day Nepal GAUTAMA’S TEACHINGS He denied the existence of a soul; taught that only matter existed (in opposition to teaching of Upanishads) Because matter was always in a state of flux, he recognized no Absolute Being or any fixed universal principle other than constant change Even gods were subject to laws of growth & decay; the universe is forever becoming He retained the concept of karma; he believed that the root of suffering is desire (i. e. he pursuit of unattainable goals because the objects sought are fleeting & unreal) In this sense, he agreed with orthodox Hinduism that worldly things are an illusion or maya To reach Nivarna, one should recognize & reject worldly desires as blind follies; cultivate unselfishness, compassion & honesty; reject injury to others such as murder, theft & adultery; choose a life that does not bring harm to other living things 500 years after Buddhism was founded, it split into two major divisions: Hinayana School ( the Lesser Vehicle) and Mahayana School (the Greater Vehicle) HINAYANA SCHOOL So called because it emphasized individual salvation; claimed that a diligent person could attain nivarna in three lifetimes Bodhisattva – successive incarnations of the Buddha Denied existence of a soul; does not recognize the founder of Buddhism as a god. However, prayers, gifts of flowers & incense may be offered to his image Found in Sri Lanka, Bu rma (Myanmar), Thailand, Cambodia & Laos MAHAYANA SCHOOL Mahayana sets as its goal the redemption of the entire human race; worships Buddha as a god The concept of Bodhisattva – represents the Buddha-elect, an individual who has won enlightenment but chooses to remain in the world for the liberation of others; agreeing to suffer as ransom for all human beings Everyone is potentially a Bodhisattva & may become a Buddha. It embodied as cardinal virtues love, piety, joy & serenity Mahayana Buddhism found in China, Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal & Japan, but it disappeared in India in later centuries JAINISM Founded by Mahavira; it is contemporary with & in many respects parallel to Buddhism. Mahavira broke radically with traditional religions, rejected both their deities and their scriptures Doctrines of Jainism To Mahavira, the material universe is real, but it is filled with an infinite number of souls lodged in living creatures & inanimate things Rejected the concept of an overriding World Soul & taught that individual souls are held in bondage by matter; this bondage is perpetuated through successive births by operation of karma Because every action produces karma and karma adds weight to the chains of bondage, the only route to escape is to avoid action altogether; thus nivarna represents a place of absolute passivity Mahavira prescribed a regime of extreme asceticism, ideally culminating in death through self-starvation. Despite its atheistic tendencies, Jainism did resemble a true religion with prayers, holy scriptures and gods. Today, there are about 2 million Jains in southern and western India Prominent in Jain faith is the doctrine of ahimsa or non-injury to living things; it imposes taboos against slaughter of not only of animals but even insects. Ahimsa contributed ethical suppo rt to the ideal of pacifism Since Jainism ruled out the practice of agriculture, Jains turned to trade & money-lending, becoming some of the wealthiest in Indian society ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE VEDIC AGE Medicine: dissection, delicate surgeries; thorough knowledge of human anatomy; study of embryology Knowledge of astronomy: the first to suggest that the earth revolves on its axis & that the earth rotates around the sun Mathematics: were the first to extract square & cube roots; used the decimal system; invented the principle of zero, eventually adopted by the rest of the world; Arabic numbers in use today originated in India; advances in algebra Literature: Two epic poems: Mahabharata & Ramayana Mahabharata – the longest poem in the world with over 10,000 verses. About the struggle between two powerful Indian clans, but gods were involved also Ramayana – a romantic story of Prince Rama who rescues his lovely wife Sita fromRavana, the demon king of Ceylon Arthasastra a political commentary

Attention Biases in Anxiety

Attention Biases in Anxiety Introduction In 1987 Oatley and Johnson-Laird (cited in Mogg Bradley, 1998) supposed the evolutionary source to be the major consideration in the analysis of emotions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Attention Biases in Anxiety specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance the primary role of the mechanism responsible for the fear emotion are to allow the identification of threat in the surrounding and to assist the organism react promptly an efficiently to the situation. The attention system in the brain facilitates the pathway for sensing and tracking environmental and interceptive signal which are related with the excitement of the organism. Cognitive theory Based on the current theories, biases in information encoding contribute considerably in the etiology and sustenance of emotional disturbances, including generalized anxiety disorders (GAD) and significant depressive disturbances (Beck, 1976; Eysenck, 1992; M atthews MacLeod, 1994). Particularly, dysfunctional schemata are responsible for information failure or loss characteristics of depression, while the schemata are receptive to danger or threat associated with anxiety, (Beck, 1976; Beck et al., 1979, 1986). The stimulation of the schemata produces bias encoding of congruent information. Furthermore, he stipulated that susceptibility to emotional disturbances is an attribute of individual variation in the function of the schemata. For instance, an anxiety-prone person would present a hyperactive threat-schema which translates to elevated attention to external threat cues, an inclination to translate ambiguous stimuli to threat, and an amplified propensity to recall threatening incidents (Mogg Bradley, 1998). In 1981, Bower postulated a â€Å"semantic network theory of emotion,† wherein every emotion is denoted with a node in the corresponding network system in memory, limbic system. All the nodes are interconnected with other representation within the memory network, including the memory of happy or sad experiences. Stimulation of a certain node elevates the stimulation of the connected nodes, resulting in encoding bias in favor of information that is harmonious with the emotion. This for instance translates to an increase in stimulation of a corresponding threat-relevant material in the network due to an increase in anxious emotions.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More William et al. (1988) postulated a reviewed cognitive formulation of depression and anxiety, with the following prominent attributes; Anxiety is majorly characterized by bias for threat signal in preattentive pathway and in selective attention. Based on Graf and Mandler (1984) model of memory, anxiety is related with a bias in automatic stimulation. Persons who are prone to preattentive, habitual vigilance for threat excitation are more vulnerable to developing anxiety disturbances when subjected to stress. Trait anxiety determines the course of attentional and preattentive biases to threat motivation. High trait anxious individuals have a chronic inclination to focus attention towards threat, while low trait individuals have an inclination towards avoidant of threat stimuli. Such focus biases are augmented by escalated anxiety. In other words, HTA persons tend to be more vigilant, while LTA tend to be more avoidant of threat. Thus, attentional and preattentive biases are an interrelated function of trait and state anxiety (MacLeod Mathews, 1988). Cognitive behavior therapy accomplishes its objective by focusing on amending the biases for threat. Thus the elimination of such biases must lessen anxious emotions and minimize susceptibility to later emotional imbalances. In 1985 Gray argued that susceptibility to anxiety is related with personal differences in the function of the behavioral inhibitory system ( BIS) of the septo-hippocampal region of the brain. The role of this area is to balance between the actual and the expected stimuli. The BIS functions in two modes. First mode is the â€Å"checking† mode which is adapted when the real stimuli are harmonious with the expected stimuli, thereby subjecting behavior regulation function to other systems of the brain especially those concerned with enduring goals accomplishment. The other mode is engaged when the real and expected stimuli are discordant, or when the expected stimuli are not compulsive; ‘control’ mode. Clearly, anxiety is major attribute of BIS activation which is associated with threats of disappointment or penalty, uncertainty and novelty. BIS excitation produces an inhibition of continuing behavior process, escalated arousal and intensive attention to vicinity stimuli. Therefore, the BIS in anxiety-prone people are highly sensitive which attributes them to hypervigilance to prospective threat stimuli i n the background (Mogg Bradley, 1998). According to LeDoux (1995), anxiety is majorly associated with the brain system responsible for processing threat impulses. His model of anxiety speculates that the thalamic and amygdale neural pathways facilitate prompt major evaluation of threat stimuli, via quick assessment of stimulus path characteristics. Other structures, associated with the cortical and hippocampus networks influence such evaluation process by preparing feedback on the situational context and stimulus characteristics relevant to information bias. The amygdala not only receive ‘quick-and-dirty’ thalamic signals that facilitate rapid reactions to restricted stimulus information, but also a comprehensive stimulus information through inputs from relatively longer and slower networks. Thus amygdala contributes majorly in assessment of threat by virtue of integrating information from various sources. Furthermore, when the amaygdala receives input from threat stim ulus, it may influence an array of cognitive mechanisms, such as perception, explicit memory, and selective attention. There are various perspectives psychologist may adopt in his or her approach of psychological issue. These different perspectives may be cultural, evolutionary, biological, cognitive, humanistic, behaviorist or psychoanalytic. Although majority of psychologist appreciate the value of each perspective, they concede that no perspective can solely offer a complete solution to a psychological problem.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Attention Biases in Anxiety specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, contemporary psychologists often adopt an eclectic, applying principles and methods from various perspectives that are relevant to the issue at hand (â€Å"Chapter 1: introducing psychology,† n.d). Psychology students start by appreciating a single perspective and then more perspective as they pro gressively gain knowledge concerning each perspective. Often they come to appreciate the importance of each perspective in relevance to a specific situation as they continuously relate to psychological principles in their daily live challenges (Beck, Emery, Greenberg,1985). For instance they can recognize the significance of behaviorism in teaching their dog not to attack people or in rehabilitating themselves from smoking, as well as the significance of humanism in promoting a sense of accountability for their own lives (â€Å"Chapter 1: introducing psychology,† n.d). Psychological research A psychological research is driven majorly by two factors that include; the inability to integrate a new concept, and a drawback in the existing theories. A psychological research is step by step formal undertaking based on the following perspectives. First, conceptual skills are applied to develop a theory for the phenomenon of interest. Second, deductive logic is implemented in order t o establish the hypothesis based on the theory. Third, researchers gather data methodically based on the research design. Fourth, the inductive principle that underpins the experimental design allows exclusion of some prospective analysis of the data. Fifth, relevant statistical techniques are deployed in the tabulation and interpretation of data. Finally, deductive reasoning is applied to arrive to a theoretical conclusion. Eventually, the accomplishment of the research undertaking relies on a confluence of conceptual, methodological, meta-theoretical and statistical proficiency (Chow, 2002). Psychologist may focus on specific aforementioned perspective(s) and neglect other concerns. Hence, psychologist employs a wide range of research methods. Perhaps, this may create the impression of essential methodological disparity within the psychology fraternity. Although this conflict is not necessarily objectionable, it is believed that concession of the philosophical and meta-theoretical issues will help shift the methodological contradictions within the fraternity into a better perspective (Koster et al. 2006). For instance, prior to deciding if empirical research should be based theoretically on data or conceptually by theory, it is important to primarily establish if there is a plain observation in the research.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, prior to deciding if empirical study should be based conceptually on theory or theoretically on data, it is important to establish primarily that it will involve plain observation. Simultaneously, acknowledging that observation made in the research process depends on theory, a question whether it is proper to dismiss the possibility of objectivity, especially when the professionals appeal to the mind, the incorporeal unit (Chow, 2002). Psychological phenomena are explained based on the hypothetical mechanism which portrays the theoretical properties of interest. Thus, the following questions emerge from this conviction. First, do psychologists depict inconsistency when they employ psychometric or statistics tests? Second, how can a researcher employ quantitative data to substantiate qualitative theories? Through which means do psychologists replicate the data collected from a designed research to a real-life event? What is the justification of empirical research in psy chology? By what techniques can psychologists evaluate their research study? (Chow, 2002). Bias to threat in High trait anxiety High trait anxious individuals (HTA) have been revealed by numerous researches to express increased attention to threat compared to low trait anxious individuals (LTA). A research conducted by Koster and colleagues (2005), an investigation to elucidate â€Å"whether the intentional bias is related to facilitate intentional engagement to threat or difficulties disengaging attention from threat† (Koster et al., 2005), The research involved HTA and LTA undergraduates on whom an altered exogenous prompt task was performed. The situation of the target was accurately or inaccurately signified by highly, mildly and neutral threatening images. The findings depicted that the at 100ms image presentation, HTA subjects engaged their attention more intensively and portrayed more impaired disengagement from highly intimidating images relative to the LTA counterpar ts. Moreover, HTA subjects depicted a stronger trend towards attention evasion of threat at 2000 and 500ms presentation. Theses information supports differential characteristics of anxiety-based biases in attentive manifestation of threat during the initial phase relative to later phase of information development (Wilson, MacLeod, 2003). Attention bias in emotional disorder Based on MacLeod, Mathews, and Tata (1986), recent research purports the relationship of anxiety with the processing prejudice that promotes the storage of volatile information. Nevertheless, the accessible data can be encoded via alternative explanations, such as bias accounts (Mogg, Mathews, Weinman, 1987). This study approaches the interpretive challenge from a novel paradigm that helps overcome the challenge. This is achieved by requiring participants to express a neutral, response by a button dial to a neutral signal signified by a dot probe. The situation of the probe was altered on a visual display unit (VDU) screen consistent with the words exhibited visually, which denoted either threat or neutral connection (MacLeod, Mathews, and Tata 1986). This study relied on probe sensing latency information to establish the effects of the threat-centered stimuli on the spread of visual concentration. It was found that the clinically anxious subjects regularly focused attention on threat words, translating to decreased detection latency for probes associated with the corresponding location of the stimuli. On the other hand, normal control participants, inclined to swing attention distal from such stimuli. The findings approved the existence of anxiety-based data encoding bias, suggesting that such cognitive mechanism may be partially responsible for the sustenance of such mood disorders (MacLeod, Mathews, and Tata 1986).. Participants were required to undertake a full cycle of the Mill Hill Synonym Test, Beck Depression Inventory, and Spielberg State Anxiety Inventory (Section B of the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale). They were position to view the VDU screen and instructed to read aloud the word which will present at the top or bottom of the screen. In certain cases a dot probe will persist in one of either site the two words showed, and the subjects were needed to promptly press a certain button (MacLeod, Mathews, and Tata 1986). Analysis of anxiety Proof of attention and pre-attentive biases associated with anxiety is analyzed from a cognitive-motivational approach. This analysis purports that susceptibility to anxiety emerges majorly from a lower a threshold for assessing threat, instead of a bias in the perspective of attention execution (Cohen, 1988). Therefore, stimuli that are perceived innocuous are evaluated as those of higher subjective threat value by relative to the low trait anxious individuals. Further, it is speculated that every person inclines to stimuli that are deemed more threatening. However, this supposition is opposed with other latest cognitive rep lica of anxiety (Mogg Bradley, 1998). Selective attention to threat â€Å"The dot probe task† (J of Abnorm Psychol 95, 1986) is commonly used approach for examining selective attention to threat. An induced reaction to probes that show at the corresponding site as the threat information in relation to the reactions to probes situated on the opposite site as the threat information is denoted as vigilance to threat assumption (Koster, Crombez, Verschuere, Houwer, 2003). Mackintosh, Mathews (2003) argue that the outcomes in the dot probe approach are ambiguous proof of the vigilance to threat assumption. In addition the findings can also be translated as a problem to separate from threat. The research involved a survey of 44 undergraduates who performed probe detection task employing pictures as stimuli. Considering the response times on neutral trials, there was no proof for induced detection of threatening stimuli. Conversely, it was discovered that the dot probe result wer e partially an attribute of separation consequence (Fox, Russo, Dutton, 2002). First subjects were taken through the entire State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, Jacobs, 1983). The subjects were seated about 60 cm from computer screen to do the probe detection task which comprised of 12 rehearsals, two buffers, and 80 trials. All trials commenced with an attachment cross which was portrayed 1000 ms at the center. Subsequently, duo pictures presented 4.4 cm on top of each other (Mogg, et al., 2000). for 500 ms. A small dot probe promptly (14 ms) presented in place of one of the images following the offset of the pictures (Koster et al., 2003). The participant were required to show the site of the probe with a press of either of the two button promptly and precisely on AZERTY keyboard. This involved left index finger corresponding to the q key for a probe presentation at the top and right index finger corresponding to the 5 key for the probe prese ntation at the bottom. The presentation of the dot probe often accurately corresponded with that of the previous image presentation at the alternate site on the screen, and the sequence of trials was randomly selected for all the subjects (Koster et al. 2003).. Following the completion of the experiment, the subjects were requested to rate provocation and valence of the high-threatening (HT) and minimal-threatening (MT) images based on the self-evaluation manikin (Lang, 1980). This enabled the researchers to determine if the ratings of the subjects were consistent with the normative ratings. As a result of time limitation, just half the subjects were able to rate the five HT and five MT images. The remaining half of the subjects rated the 10 HT images (Koster et al., 2003). Anxiety versus picture stimuli Former researches employing search tasks has depicted an anxiety-based bias supporting attention to threatening phrases when they are displayed in synchrony with emotionally neutral phrases (Yiend Matthews, 2001). In the first experiment utilizing the same task, a corresponding consequence was accomplished with instead emotionally threatening pictures as stimuli. In this experiment two cohorts scoring high or low based on personal-report evaluation of anxiety, observed threatening or non-threatening couples of pictures (Lang, Bradley, Cuthbert, 1999) displayed simultaneously on a monitor for 500ms. Then either stimuli of interest presented in the site formerly occupied by one of the images, and the subjects were required to reply by dialing a corresponding key. Latencies to sensor such targets were applied to index the extent to which cohorts especially presented to mildly or highly threatening images (Yiend Matthews, 2001). The trials with error comprised 3.5% of the critical data which were then disqualified. Also 0.7% responses which had latencies above 1,100ms were omitted as outliers, using a box plot of the spread. A mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the averages of the residual data (Yiend Matthews, 2001). In a second experiment using pictures as site cues, high-trait anxious participants were slower compared to the low-trait anxious controls with regard to the response to stimuli requiring attention disorientation from threat (Derryberry, Reed, 2002). They were found to be slower in overall highly threatening images (Yiend Matthews, 2001). In this experiment the trials were categorized into valid, invalid and no-cue. An arrow pointing up or down was used to signify a valid trial showed in the same site as the as the preceding image cue, on the right or left of middle fixation cross. The target arrow for the invalid trials showed on spatial location converse to the preceding image cue. Whereas on no-cue trials no image was shown, as the computer screen remained blank for a similar duration before the presentation of target. Out of a total of 240 trials, 180 comprised the critical, of which were divid ed equally among the three categories. An additional 60 valid filler trials were excluded in the interpretation, so that the predictive credibility of the valid trials is sustained (Yiend Matthews, 2001).. A third experiment applying the same task but employing a prolonged cue exposure, revealed a connected disorientation problem across the two groups (Fox, et al., 2001)., while the more basic slowing associated with serious threat was similarly limited to the anxious population. Conclusively, attentional bias concern a particular problem in disorientation attention from the situation of any threat stimuli as well as a more basic interference effect associated with the degree of threat (Yiend Matthews, 2001). Reference List Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International University Press. Beck, A.T., Rush A. J. Shaw, B. F. Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of  depression: A treatment manual. New York: Guilford Beck, A.T., Emery, G. Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: a  cognitive perspective. New York: Guilford Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American psychology, 36, 129-148.  Chapter 1: Introducing psychology. (2010). Quick view. Retrieved from  https://www.wiley.com/college/psyc/huffman249327/ch_01.pdf Chow, S. L. (2002). Methods in psychological research. In Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Eolss Publishers, Oxford, UK. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences. San Diego, CA: McGraw-Hill. Derryberry, D., Reed, M. A. (2002). Anxiety-related attentional biases and their regulation by attentional control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 225–236. Eysenck, M. W. (1992). Anxiety: The cognitive perspective. Hove: Erlbaum. Fox, E., Russo, R., Bowles, R., Dutton, K. (2001). Do threatening stimuli draw or hold visual attention in subclinical anxiety? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 681–700. Fox, E., Ru sso, R., Dutton, K. (2002). Attentional bias for threat: Evidence for delayed  disengagement from emotional faces. Cognition Emotion, 16, 355–379. Gray, J. A. (1995). Issues in neuropsychology of anxiety. In A. H. Tuma J. D. (Eds). Anxiety and anxiety disorders. New jersey: Erlboum. Koster, E.H.W., Crombez, G., Verschuere, B., , De Houwer, J. (2006). Selective  attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: differentiating vigilance and  difficulty to disengage. Behavior Research and Therapy, 42, 1183–1192. Lang, P. J. (1980). Behavioural treatment and the bio-behavioural assessment:  Computer applications. In J. B. Sidowski, J. H. Johnson, T. A. Williams (Eds.), Technology in mental health care delivery systems (pp. 119–137). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., Cuthbert, B. N. (1999). International pictures system (IAPS): Technical manual and affective ratings. Gainesville, FL: The Center for Research in Psychophysiology. LeDoux, J. E. (1995). Emotions: clues from the brain. Annual review of psychology, 46. 209-235. MacLead, C. Matthews, A. (1988) Anxiety and the allocation of attention to threat.  Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. 40. 653-670. Mackintosh, B., Mathews, A. (2003). Don’t look now: Attentional avoidance of  emotionally-valenced cues’. Cognition Emotion, 17(4), 623–646. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders.  Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15–20. Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P. (1998). A cognitive–motivational analysis of anxiety.  Behaviour Research and Therapy , 36, 809–848. Mogg, K., McNamara, J., Powys, M., Rawlinson, H., Seiffer, A., Bradley, B. P. (2000).  Selective attention to threat: A test of two cognitive models of anxiety. Cognition Emotion, 14, 375–399. Mogg, K., Mathews, A., Weinman, J. (1987). Memory bias in clinical anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 94â €“98. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., Jacobs, G. A. (1983).  Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. William, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLead, C. Mathews, A. (1988). Cognitive  psychology and emotional disorders. Chebster: wiley. Wilson, E., MacLeod, C. (2003). Contrasting two accounts of anxiety-linked attentional bias: Selective attention to varying levels of stimulus threat intensity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 212–218. Yiend, J., Mathews, A. (2001). Anxiety and attention to threatening pictures. Quarterly  Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 665–681.

Battle of Paulus Hook in the American Revolution

Battle of Paulus Hook in the American Revolution Battle of Paulus Hook - Conflict Date: The Battle of Paulus Hook took place on August 19, 1779, during the American Revolution (1775-1783).   Armies Commanders United States Major Henry Light Horse Harry Lee300 men Great Britain Major William Sutherland250 men Battle of Paulus Hook - Background: In the spring of 1776, Brigadier General William Alexander, Lord Stirling directed that a series of fortifications be built along the west bank of the Hudson River opposite New York City.   Among those that were constructed was a fort on Paulus Hook (present-day Jersey City).   That summer, the garrison at Paulus Hook engaged British warships as they arrived to commence General Sir William Howes campaign against New York City.   After General George Washingtons Continental Army suffered a reverse at the Battle of Long Island in August and Howe captured the city in September, American forces withdrew from Paulus Hook.   A short time later, British troops landed to occupy the post.    Situated to control access to northern New Jersey, Paulus Hook sat on a spit of land with water on two sides.   On the landward side, it was protected by a series of salt marshes that flooded at high tide and could only be crossed via a single causeway.   Upon the hook itself, the British built a series of redoubts and earthworks which were centered on an oval casemate containing six guns and a powder magazine.   By 1779, the garrison at Paulus Hook consisted of around 400 men led by  Colonel Abraham Van Buskirk.   Additional support for the posts defense could be summoned from New York through the use of a variety of signals.            Ã‚   Battle of Paulus Hook - Lees Plan: In July 1779, Washington directed Brigadier General Anthony Wayne to mount a raid against the British garrison at Stony Point.   Attacking on night of July 16, Waynes men achieved a stunning success and captured the post.   Taking inspiration from this operation, Major Henry Light Horse Harry Lee approached Washington about making a similar effort against Paulus Hook.   Though initially reluctant due to the posts proximity to New York City, the American commander elected to authorize the attack.   Lees plan called for his force to overwhelm Paulus Hooks garrison at night and then destroy the fortifications before withdrawing at dawn.   To accomplish the mission, he assembled a force of 400 men consisting of 300 from the 16th Virginia under Major John Clark, two companies from Maryland overseen by Captain Levin Handy, and a troop of dismounted dragoons drawn from Captain Allen McLeans rangers.                Battle of Paulus Hook - Moving Out: Departing from New Bridge (River Edge) on the evening of August 18, Lee moved south with the goal of attacking around midnight.   As the strike force covered the fourteen miles to Paulus Hook, problems ensued as a local guide attached to Handys command became lost in the woods delaying the column for three hours.   Additionally, a portion of the Virginians found themselves separated from Lee.   In a stroke of luck, the Americans avoided a column of 130 men led by Van Buskirk that had sortied from the fortifications.   Reaching Paulus Hook after 3:00 AM, Lee ordered Lieutenant Guy Rudolph to reconnoiter for a path across the salt marshes.   Once one was located, he divided his command into two columns for the assault. Battle of Paulus Hook - Bayonet Attack: Moving through the marshes and a canal undetected, the Americans found that their powder and ammunition had become wet.   Ordering his troops to fix bayonets, Lee directed one column to break through the abatis and storm Paulus Hooks outer entrenchments.   Surging forward, his men gained a brief advantage as the sentries initially believed the approaching men were Van Buskirks troops returning.   Swarming into the fortress, the Americans overwhelmed the garrison and forced Major William Sutherland, commanding in the colonels absence, to retreat with a small force of Hessians to a small redoubt.   Having secured the remainder of Paulus Hook, Lee began to assess the situation as dawn was rapidly approaching. Lacking forces to storm the redoubt, Lee planned to burn the fortress barracks.   He quickly abandoned this plan when it was found that they were filled with sick men, women, and children.   Having captured 159 enemy soldiers and achieved a victory, Lee elected to begin withdrawing before British reinforcements arrived from New York.   The plan for this phase of the operation called for his troops to move to Douws Ferry where they would cross the Hackensack River to safety.   Arriving at the ferry, Lee was alarmed to find that required boats were absent.   Lacking other options, he men began marching north over a route similar that used earlier in the night. Battle of Paulus Hook - Withdrawal Aftermath: Reaching Three Pigeons Tavern, Lee reconnected with 50 of the Virginians who had become separated during the movement south.   Possessing dry powder, they were quickly deployed as flankers to protect the column.   Pressing on, Lee soon connected with 200 reinforcements sent south by Stirling.   These men aided in repelling an assault by Van Buskirk a short time later.   Though pursued by Sutherland and reinforcements from New York, Lee and his force safely arrived back at New Bridge around 1:00 PM.   In the attack at Paulus Hook, Lees command suffered 2 killed, 3 wounded, and 7 captured while the British incurred over 30 killed and wounded as well as 159 captured.   Though not large-scale victories, the American successes at Stony Point and Paulus Hook helped convince the British commander in New York, General Sir Henry Clinton, that a decisive triumph could not be obtained in the region.   As a result, he began planning a campaign in the southern colonies for the following year.   In recognition of his achievement, Lee received a gold medal from Congress.   He would later serve with distinction in the South and was the father of noted Confederate commander Robert E. Lee. Selected Sources HistoryNet: Battle of Paulus Hook2nd Virginia Regiment: Battle of Paulus Hook Revolutionary New Jersey: Battle of Paulus Hook

The Logic of Customer Satisfaction and Retention of Hilton Group Plc Research Paper

The Logic of Customer Satisfaction and Retention of Hilton Group Plc - Research Paper Example The traditional and the conventional way of doing business are becoming obsolete as newer methods are taking up the slots and it is particularly true for the service industry. In the case of the service industry, the customer is the undoubted king and every possible measure is initiated so that the esteemed customer is not just satisfied but is happy so that he is retained as the industry knows the fact very well that it is more difficult to get hold of a new customer than to retain an existing client. The logic of customer satisfaction and retention also applies to the hotel industry and renowned hotel chain - Hilton Group, Plc is no different. In the case of a hotel group, the service offered is totally dependent upon the people and the team of the group. Therefore, there is absolutely no doubt about the fact that human resource management is one of the most crucial aspects of such organisations. In fact, in the competitive industry of today, human resource policies are not just limited with that of the employee development and handling of employee grievances but also contribute towards the customer satisfaction and thereby towards the profitability of the group. In 2001, the renowned hotel group had more than 60,000 employees across 500 hotels all over the globe, in 50 countries. For the convenience of the business, the group had divided the operations of the hotel into four different global divisions namely UK and Ireland, Europe – the Middle East and Africa, Asia Pacific and the Americas. Each of the divisions had dedicated a team of professionals to run their operations under the leadership of the Area Presidents. In the year 1999, the group joined hands with another hotel group of repute named Stakis, Plc and undertook a number of initiatives to upkeep the momentum of the employees going. The group came up with two prominent schemes namely the ‘equilibrium’ and the ‘esprit’.

Personal Statement Adjust(including) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Personal Statement Adjust(including) - Essay Example At that moment, it dawned on me that the most effective way to capture anyone’s attention is via proper communication. My brother had limited vocabulary and did not comprehend much verbal communication but he was able to relate with the show because it spoke his ‘language’. The various presentations of communication caught my interest and have become my passion from then on. The development of communication is a process. I know that to improve my understanding of the process, I have to get involved with different activities that would improve my communication skills. Therefore, I read numerous books, watched many TV shows and enrolled in public speaking courses. During one of my classes at Foothill College, I had my first public speaking experience in front of fifty people which was very memorable. Although I felt nervous about everything, I did my best to focus on my speech. When I saw that my audiences were paying full attention to me, I felt confident and perha ps delivered my speech well because I received a hearty applause when I finished. Going back to Sharma, he said in his book, â€Å"The Monk who sold His Ferrari† that â€Å"the tragedy of life is not death but what we let die in us while we live†. ... As a Christian, I saw it was a great chance for me to serve God by delivering His message through the character I portrayed in the play. The experience further caused a great impact on my understanding about communication and caused a stronger passion for it. Moreover, I landed the position of secretary of the college’s Environment Club. With the extensive communication the job required of me, I learned to associate with different cultures and people from all walks of life. Communication is important but it should not be limited to simply expressing one’s self. People should learn to effectively communicate to highly benefit from the process. However, there are a lot of people who are communicating but not well enough in order to truly understand each other. There are many aspects of communication that need to be researched on and I believe that it should be a continuing process. With the technological advancements, other manners of communication are constantly being di scovered therefore, there is really a need to do more studies about the subject matter. In line with this and my interests, I look forward to being trained by the University of California. Accomplishments are both challenging and fulfilling. They bring hardships that may seem to burden people through the process but the difficulties serve as the very molds that shape a person. From experience, I learned things the hard way but I treasure them because the difficulties I have been through are what made me stronger and better. When I was in high school, I was honored to be selected by the principal to lead a team participating in the 2011 Hong Kong Drama Festival. I was also an actor, director and screenwriter. When I was informed about my role, I was hesitant to